巻末 - 文法索引
Welcome to the Grammar Index! Here you can quickly find and review the grammar points taught in Tobira. Use the quick navigation to jump to a lesson's grammar or use the quick search to find the grammar point you want to read up on.
文法ノートの使い方
Abbreviations used in the Grammar Notes
Abbreviation | Meaning | Examples |
S | Sentence | 学生が来る |
N | Noun | 学生; 日本; バス |
NP | Noun Phrase | 日本語の勉強 |
VN | Noun which forms a suru-verb by affixing する | 勉強; 買い物; サイン |
V | Verb | 話す; 食べる; 来る |
V-masu | Stem of verb's masu form (=masu form minus masu) | 放し; 食べ; 来 |
V-nai | Stem of verb's nai form (=nai form minus nai) | 話さ; 食べ; 来 |
V-vol | Verb's volitional form | 話そう; 食べよう; 来よう |
A | i-adjective | 大きい; おもしろい |
A-stem | Stem of i-adjective | 大き; おもしろ |
A-nai | Stem of i-adjective's nai form (=nai form minus nai) | 大きく; おもしろく |
ANa | Stem of na-adjective | 静か; 便利 |
ANo | Stem of no-adjective | 普通; 最高 |
An | Non-conjugational adjective | すぐ; ゆっくり; 大きく; 静かに |
DemP | Demonstrative pronoun | これ; それ; あれ |
DemA | Demonstative adjective | この; その; こんな; あんな |
Conj | Conjunction | が; から; しかし |
Prt | Particle | が; を; に; よ; ね |
QW | Question word | 何; だれ; いつ; どの; いくら |
Da | だ and its conjugations | だ; だった; です; でした |
te | te-form | 話して; 高くて; 静かで |
plain | plain form | 話す; 話した; 高い; 静かだった |
non-past | non-past form | 話す; 高い; 静かだ |
past | past form | 話した; 高った; 静かだった |
aff | affirmative form | 話す; 高い; 静かだ |
neg | negative form | 話さない; 高くない; 静かじゃない |
cond | conditional form (=ba-form) | 話せば; 高ければ; 静かなら(ば); 静かであれば |
Symbols used in the Grammar Notes
Symbol | Meaning | Examples |
A/B; {A/B} | Either A or B | Vteくる/いく; N{では/じゃ}なくて |
{A/B}{C/D} | AC, AD, BC or BD | N{で/から}{できる/できている} |
(A) | A is optional. | N(Prt)も |
A+B | A is followed by B. | Adj+N |
× | The following word/phrase/sentence is ungrammatical/unacceptable | 本を{読む(の)なら/×読んだら}、電気をつけなさい。 |
?? | The following word/phrase/sentence is quite unnatural. | トムは急に{怒り出した/??怒り始めた}。 |
Types of Grammar Structures
The connection forms for some grammar structures listed in the Grammar Notes are listed by type: Type 1, Type 2a, etc. A list of each of these types and their connection forms follows.
Type | Connection Forms | Examples |
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Type 3 |
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第1課:日本の地理 (Tobira: p.17-21)
1. Noun{で/から}できる
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説明 | {~で/から}できる means "to be made of/from/out of." から indicates that the material(s) from which something is made is not immediately obvious. できる is used in generic statements while できている is used when describing something specific. |
英訳 | ~でできる = be made of; be made out of ~からできる = be made from |
文型 | N{で/から} {できる/できている} |
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2. Adjective-stem+さ
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説明 | The suffix さ is attached to the stem of an i-adjective or a na-adjective to form a noun. |
英訳 | -ness; -ty |
文型 | {A-stem/ANa}+さ: ひろ |
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3. {Nounの/Verb}ように
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説明 | ように is used when (1) X resembles Y, (2) when X is as Y shows, says, explains, etc., or (3) when X does something as shown/said/explained/etc. in/by Y. |
英訳 | like; as; as if |
文型 | a. Nのように b. V-plainように |
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4. ~は~で{有名だ/知られている}
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説明 | Either a noun or a sentence (S+こと) occurs before で to state what X is famous for or the reason that X is famous. |
英訳 | X is famous for Y; X is known because Y |
文型 | a. ~はNで{有名だ/知られている} b. ~はSことで{有名だ/知られている}:Type 2c |
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5. Verb-masu; i-Adjective-stem+く
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説明 | The masu stem of a verb and the stem of an i-adjective+く indicate that the sentence is continuing. That is, they function like the English sentence connector "and." This use is generally restricted to written language. In spoken language the te-form of a verb or an i-adjective is commonly used. |
英訳 | and |
文型 | a. V-masu、~ b. A-stem+く、~ |
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6. Verb-non-pastこと{が/も}ある
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説明 | V-plain.non-pastことがある is used when something occurs (or someone does something) occasionally. も implies that something else may also occur. Note: This phrase should not be confused with the phrase V-plain.pastことがある (e.g. 日本に行ったことがある), which implies one has or has not done something before. |
英訳 | There are times when ~; sometimes |
文型 | V-plain.non-pastこと{が/も}ある |
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7. {Noun1/Question-word~か/~かどうか}はNoun2に{よって違う/よる}
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説明 | This structure is used to indicate that something differs depending on the situation, location, time, etc. |
英訳 | ~によって違う = differ depending on ~ による = depend on ~ |
文型 | {QW~か/~かどうか/N1}はN2に{よって違う/よる} |
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8. Verb-masu始める
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説明 | 始める in this use is an auxiliary verb meaning "begin to V." |
英訳 | begin to; begin V-ing |
文型 | V-masu始める |
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9. Noun1+Particle+の+Noun2
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説明 | In some situations, A in AのB is a noun with a particle such as へ, で, と, から, and まで. が, を and に never occur in this position. Note that の cannot be omitted in this case because it indicates that the preceding noun phrase and particle modifies the following noun phrase. Without の, the noun phrase with the particle is interpreted as an adverbial phrase modifying the predicate in the clause. (Compare Ex. 3 with 先生とミーティングに行けない.) |
文型 | N1+Prt+の+N2 |
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10. ~はSentenceと言われている
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説明 | This structure is used to introduce something commonly said about something or someone. |
英訳 | ~ is said to be ~; It is said that ~ |
文型 | ~はS-plainと言われている |
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11. ~と言えば
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説明 | ~と言えば, which literally means "if you say that ~," is used to present, as the topic, something or someone that has just been mentioned by the hearer or the speaker. |
英訳 | Speaking of ~ |
文型 | Xと言えば (X is usually a noun or noun phrase.) |
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12. ~とか(~とか)
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説明 | とか is used to list examples non-exhaustively. It is similar to や in meaning when the examples listed are nouns. Unlike や, however, とか can also be preceded by verb phrases (Ex.3). When two or more items are listed, とか after the final item is optional when it is followed by a particle (Ex.1) and mandatory otherwise (Ex.2). (Note that や does not occur after the final item.) In S1とかS2とかする, the final とか is not optional. |
英訳 | things/places/etc. like ~; and; or |
文型 | a. N1とかN2(とか) b. S1-plainとかS2-plainとか{する/できる} |
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13. ~というのは{Nounのこと/Nounということ/Sentenceということ/Sentenceという意味}だ
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説明 | The structure ~というのは~だ is used to provide the meaning or definition of a word or phrase. |
英訳 | X means ~; The meaning of X is ~; What X means is ~ |
文型 | a. ~というのは{Nのこと/Nということ}だ b. ~というのはSことだ:Type 2c c. ~というのは{Sということ/Sという意味}だ:Type 1 |
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14. ~だけ{でなく(て)/じゃなく(て)}、~も
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説明 | The sentence structures ~だけでなく、~も, etc. express the idea "not only X, but also Y." Particles に, へ, で, と or から may appear before も. |
英訳 | not only ~, but also ~ |
文型 | a. N1だけでなく、N2(Prt)も b. Sだけでなく、N(Prt)も:Type 2c |
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15. Nounって
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説明 | って is a colloquial topic marker. It often appears in questions. In written language, は can be used. |
英訳 | Speaking of ~; As for ~ |
文型 | Nって |
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16. ~って{いう/聞く/書く/etc.}
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説明 | って is the informal colloquial form of the quotative marker と. って commonly occurs with verbs like 言う, 聞く, 書く and 呼ぶ. (何がないって? in the second sentence above is the abbreviated form of 何がないって言ったの?) |
英訳 | (tell, hear, say, etc.) that ~ N1っていうN2 = N2 called N1 |
文型 | a. Sって{言う/聞く/書く} b. Nって{言う/書く/呼ぶ} c. N1っていうN2 |
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第2課:日本語のスピーチスタイル (Tobira: p.43-48)
1. ~なければ{いけない/ならない};~なくては{いけない/ならない}
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説明 | These patterns express the idea of obligation. Although the two patterns are interchangeable, there is a subtle difference between ならない and いけない. That is, ならない is commonly used when the speaker states his/her sense of obligation while いけない is commonly used when the sense of obligation is directed toward the hearer (i.e., when the speaker wants to impose a certain obligation on the hearer). The following contracted forms are used in casual conversation:
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英訳 | have to; must; should |
文型 |
a. V-nai{なければ/なくては}{いけない/ならない}:行か{なければ/なくては}{いけない/ならない} b. A-nai{なければ/なくては}{いけない/ならない}:安く{なければ/なくては}{いけない/ならない} c. ANa/No/Nで{なければ/なくては}{いけない/ならない}:簡単で{なければ/なくては}{いけない/ならない} d. Nで{なければ/なくては}{いけない/ならない}:本で{なければ/なくては}{いけない/ならない} |
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2. ~など
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説明 | など indicates that the given list is not exhaustive. When more than one item is listed, や is commonly used to connect them. |
英訳 |
N1やN2など = N1, N2, and others; N1, N2, etc.; N1 and N2 among others N1やN2などのN3 = N3 such as N1 and N2; N3 like N1 and N2 N1やN2など、N3 = N3 such as N1 and N2; N3 like N1 and N2 |
文型 | N1やN2など({は/も/が/を/に/の/etc.}) (N1 and N2 can be words or phrases. (See the sentences above.)) |
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3. ~は~の一つだ
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説明 | This structure is used to describe X while indicating that X is not the only example, object, person, etc. |
英訳 | X is one of the ~ |
文型 | NはNPの{一つ/一人}だ。 |
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4. Nounにとって
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説明 | Xにとって means "to X; for X" in a context where something (or someone) is important to X, or is necessary, useful, good, difficult, etc. for X. X is often a person, a geographic unit or an organization. |
英訳 | for; to |
文型 | Nにとって |
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5. Nounの代わりに
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説明 | の代わりに is used to present something/someone that is replacing or has replaced something/someone. When the context is clear, Nounの can be omitted, as seen in Ex. 2. |
英訳 | in place of; instead of; to make up for |
文型 | Nの代わりに |
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6. ~ため(に) 【purpose】
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説明 | When ため(に) is preceded by a noun or the non-past form of a verb, it indicates either purpose or reason/cause. (See 文法ノート7) In different contexts Nounのため(に) also indicates benefit, as seen below:
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英訳 | in order to; to; for the purpose of; for; for the sake of |
文型 | a. Nのため(に) b. V-plain.non-pastため(に) c. {その/この}ため(に) d. N1のためのN2 e. V-plain.non-pastためのN f. {その/この}ためのN |
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7. ~ため(に) 【reason; cause】
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説明 | When ため(に) is preceded by an i-adjective or a na-adjective or the past form of a verb, it indicates reason or cause. When it is preceded by the non-past form of a verb or a noun, it means either reason/cause or purpose. (See 文法ノート6) The meaning is determined from the context. When ため(に) means reason/cause, it can be replaced by ~から or ~ので, which are less formal than ~ために. |
英訳 | because; due to |
文型 | a. Type 2b b. DemA: {この/その/あの}ため(に) |
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8. AかBか
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説明 | The phrase AかBか is used to present alternatives. When Bか is followed by a case particle (e.g., が, を, へ, に, で, と), the second か is usually dropped. (See 文型 b.) |
英訳 | either A or B; whether A or B |
文型 | a. ~か~か: Type 3 b. N1かN2+Prt: 本か雑誌が(ある); パンかご飯を(食べる); 九州か四国へ(行く); 友達か家族と(旅行に行く) |
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9. ~{でしょ(う)/だろ(う)}
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説明 | でしょう and だろう with rising intonation are used to elicit the hearer's confirmation. でしょう is the polite version of だろう. In casual conversation, male speakers use だろう and female speakers use でしょう. In more casual situations, the final う tends to drop. Note: でしょう and だろう with falling intonation indicates conjecture. |
英訳 | tag question (e.g., isn't it?; wasn't it?; aren't they?; is he?; are they?) |
文型 | Type 3 |
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10. Nounが見られる
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説明 | 見られる is the passive form of 見る and means "be observed." 見られる can also be interpreted as the potential form of 見る, in which case it means "can observe/see." |
英訳 | (something) is observed; (one) can observe/see |
文型 | Nが見られる |
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11. Verbようになる
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説明 | ようになる indicates a gradual change over a certain period of time; it means that someone (or something) comes to the point where he/she does (or can do) something or does not (or cannot) do something. V-なくなる is synonymous with V-ないようになる. The difference is that the latter implies a more gradual change. Compare the following sentences:
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英訳 | come to (be able to) V; not V now; not V anymore |
文型 | V-plain.not-pastようになる(V is often the potential form.): 話すようになる; 話さないようになる; 話せるようになる |
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12. また(~も)
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説明 | In addition to the meaning "again," また expresses the meaning "also" or "additionally." Compare the following examples.
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英訳 | also; as well; additionally; in addition; moreover |
文型 | また、S。 |
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13. ~必要{がある/はない}
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説明 | This phrase is used to indicate the neccessity of doing something. は is common with a negative ending. |
英訳 | a. V必要がある = it is necessary to V; must V; have to V b. V必要はない = it is not necessary to V; there is no need to V; don't have to V |
文型 | V-plain.non-past必要{がある/はない} |
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14. ~場合(は/には)
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説明 | 場合 is a noun meaning "case; occasion; situation," but with a modifier it forms an adverbial phrase/clause meaning "when; if; in case." 時 can be used in place of 場合, as seen in the following examples:
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英訳 | if; when; in case |
文型 | a. Type 2b b. DemA + 場合: {この/その/あの}場合 |
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15. A{では/じゃ}なく(て)B
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説明 | This structure is used to indicate that a certain piece of information is wrong and, following that, to present the correct information. ではなく(て) is used in written language and じゃなく(て) is used in spoken language. |
英訳 | not A, but B |
文型 | a. N1{では/じゃ}なく(て)N2 b. Phrase1{では/じゃ}なく(て)Phrase2 |
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16. {何/いく}+Counter+か
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説明 | 何 (or いく) followed by a counter and か becomes a quantifier meaning "some."
Exs. 何人か some (people); 何枚か some (sheets of paper); 何冊か some (books); Except for いくつ and いく人, いく is not commonly used in modern Japanese. 何 cannot be used with つ. Compare the meaning of Q-word+か.
いくつか some (apples, cups, etc.); いく人か some (people) Exs. 誰か someone; 何か something; いつか sometime; どこか somewhere |
英訳 | some |
文型 | {何/いく}+Counter+か |
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第3課:日本のテクノロジー (Tobira: p.68-73)
1. ~他に(も); ~他(に)は
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説明 | Nの他に(も) is an adverbial phrase meaning "in addition to N." Verbs, adjectives, and demonstrative adjectives can also precede 他に(も) to mean "in addition to V-ing," "in addition to being Adj." or "in addition to this/that." ~他(に)は also means "in addition to." In some contexts, the phrase can mean "except for; other than." |
英訳 | ~他に(も) = in addition to ~; besides ~他(に)は(~ない) = (not ~) except for ~; (not ~) other than ~ |
文型 | a. Type 2b b. {この/その/あの}他に(も) |
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2. (~と)同じ{ぐらい/くらい}
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説明 | The particle ぐらい/くらい "approximately" often occurs with 同じ to mean "about the same." Review the pattern "Number + (Counter +) ぐらい/くらい." A:ここからシカゴまでどのぐらいかかりますか。 B:車で5時間ぐらいです。 |
英訳 | about as ~ as; about the same ~ as ~ |
文型 | a. Nと同じ{ぐらい/くらい} b. N1と同じ{ぐらい/くらい}のN2 |
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3. Noun+型
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説明 | 型 is a suffix meaning "style, type, model, etc." It is commonly used to describe the shape, type, model, or newness of an object. The preceding elements are mostly nouns, but some adjectival kanji characters can also precede 型 (e.g. 大, 新, 薄). |
英訳 | style; type; pattern; make; model; design |
文型 | a. N+型だ b. N1+型(の)N2 |
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4. それに
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説明 | それに is used to add an item or to make an additional statement. |
英訳 | in addition; moreover; furthermore; what's more; on top of that; and |
文型 | a. N1{、/と/に}N2、それにN3:大阪、京都、それに、奈良にも行った b. S1。それに、S2。:日本の夏はとても暑い。それに、湿度(humidity)も高い。 c. S1し、それに、S2。:日本の夏はとても暑し、それに、湿度も高い。 |
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5. ~(の)なら
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説明 | なら is used when the speaker supposes that something is the case or is true and makes a statement, suggestions, etc. based on that supposition. の occurs before なら when the supposition is based on what the speaker has heard from someone or learned from the situation. (Review のだ.)
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英訳 | Nなら = would; could~ Sなら = if (it's the case that) ~; if (it's true that) ~ |
文型 | Type 3 |
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6. ~として
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説明 | として is used to indicate the role, capacity or occupation of someone for the function of characteristics of something. |
英訳 | as; in the capacity of |
文型 | Nとして |
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7. Verb-non-pastことになっている
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説明 | V-plain.non-pastことになっている means that something has been decided and the result of that decision is still in effect. It is often used to introduce rules and customs, as well as one's schedule. Cf. ことにしている:The speaker (or the subject of the sentence) makes it a rule to do something.
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英訳 | be supposed to ~; It is a rule that ~; It's been decided that ~ |
文型 | V-plain.non-pastことになっている:{行く/行かない}ことになっている |
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8. ~をしている;~をしたNoun
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説明 | This pattern is used to describe a feature of someone or something, focusing on a certain part or attribute of the person or thing. N1はAdj+N2をしている is synonymous with N1はN2がAdj.
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英訳 | have |
文型 | a. N1は{A/ANaな}+N2をしている:ローラは{大きい/きれいな}目をしている b. {A/ANaな}+N2をしたN1:{大きい/きれいな}目をした人 |
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9. ~てくる;~ていく
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説明 | V-teくる and V-teいく indicate the temporal or spatial direction of an action from the speaker's viewpoint. V-teくる is used when an action appears to be directed toward the speaker, and V-teいく is used when it appears to be directed away from the speaker. V-teくる often indicates that an action or process began in the past and is continuing in the present, or that something has begun to take place, as seen in the following examples:
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英訳 | V-teくる = have V-ed; begin to; become; grow V-teいく = go on V-ing; continue; become; grow |
文型 | V-teくる/いく |
例文 |
~てくる:
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10. Verb-non-pastことになった
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説明 | V-non-pastことになった means that a situation has changed due to some external force (e.g., a decision made by someone other than the speaker). It indiciates either that the speaker (or the subject of the sentence) did not actively make the decision or that he/she is viewing the decision from the standpoint of an outsider. Note that ことにした indicates that the speaker or the subject made a decision to do something:
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英訳 | It was/has been decided that ~; It turns out that ~ |
文型 | V-non-past.plainことになった:{行く/行かない}ことになった |
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11. ~ように{頼む/言う}
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説明 | ように頼む/言う is used to quote a request or command indirectly. In an affirmative request ように頼む is often used with てくれる, as in 来てくれるように頼む. (cf. negative request: ~ないように頼む) |
英訳 | ~(てくれる)ように頼む = to ask someone to V ~ように言う = to tell someone to V |
文型 | a. V-non-past.plainように頼む/言う
Direct Quote: 先生は学生に「漢字を覚えなさい」と言いました。 Indirect Quote: 先生は学生に漢字を覚えるように言いました。 b. V-teくれるように頼む Direct Quote: 私は友達に「ノートを見せてください」と頼みました。 Indirect Quote: 私は友達にノートを見せてくれるように頼みました。 c. V-naiないように頼む/言う Direct Quote: 私はよく両親に「弟をいじめてはいけません」と言われます。 Indirect Quote: 私はよく両親に弟をいじめないように言われます。 |
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12. ~て{くれる/くれない/もらえる/もらえない}?
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説明 | V-teくれる, etc. with rising intonation is used to make requests in casual conversation. |
英訳 | Will you ~?; Can you ~?; Could you ~? |
文型 | V-te{くれる/くれない/もらえる/もらえない}? |
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13. Verb-non-pastようにする
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説明 | V-plain.non-pastようにする indicates one's conscious effort to do something for some purpose. Here, one makes an effort at every opportunity to do something to the degree that he or she can, but sometimes fails. Thus, ようにする is often used for habitual actions. Note that this phrase differs from Vことにする, which indicates one's decision to do something and the action can be either a single or a habitual one. |
英訳 | make an effort to do ~; make an effort so that ~; try (one's best) to do~; try one's best so that ~ |
文型 | V-plain.non-pastようにする:{食べる/食べない}ようにする |
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14. ~かな(あ)
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説明 | かな(あ) is a sentence-final particle which indicates that the sentence is a self-addressed question or a question addressed to the speaker's in-group member(s). It is used only in casual language. |
英訳 | I wonder ~ |
文型 | Type 3 |
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15. なるべく
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説明 | なるべく with or without an adverb modifies the following verb phrase and adds the meaning "as (much) as possible." When there is no specific adverb after なるべく, it is usually interpreted as "as much as ~" or "as often as~." |
英訳 | as much/often as possible; as ~ as possible |
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16. ~ようとした{が/けれど/ら}
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説明 | V-volとした, the past form of V-volとする (to try to do~), is used in situations where someone had made and attempt to do something but failed (Ex. 1), where someone was going to do something but didn't (Ex. 2), or where something happened when someone was going to do something (Exs. 3 and 4). |
英訳 | V-volとした{が/けれど} = tried to ~ but; was going to ~ but V-volとしたら = when ~ was going to ~ |
文型 | V-volとした{が/けれど/ら}:行こうとした{が/けれど/ら};食べようとした{が/けれど/ら} |
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第4課:日本のスポーツ (Tobira: p.90-95)
1. 毎~のように
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説明 | The literal meaning of this phrase is "like every ~," but it is used to mean "almost every ~." |
英訳 | almost every ~ |
文型 | 毎 + Xのように (X = time word):毎{週/月/年/回}のように |
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2. Sentenceと{考えられている/思われている}
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説明 | Sと考えられている and Sと思われている are used to introduce a generally-accepted opinion regarding some matter. 考えられている usually indicates an opinion arrived at through logic, and 思われている usually indicates an opinion derived from intuition. Note that Sと考えられる and Sと思われる indicate the speaker's/writer's opinion. |
英訳 | It is considered that ~; It is believed that ~ |
文型 | S-plainと{考えられている/思われている} |
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3. ~など(は)/~なんて
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説明 | (1) Sentenceなど(は) is an abbreviated form of Sなどということは, which means "things like S." (2) Nounなど(は) is a shortened form of Nounなどという{もの/人/etc.}は, which means "things/people/etc. like N." なんて is a colloquial version of など(は). (3) When S is a quotation, Sなどと is an abbreviated form of Sなどということを (Ex.5). |
英訳 | things/people/etc. like ~ |
文型 | a. Type 1 b. N{など(は)/なんて}:子供{など(は)/なんて} |
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4. まず
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説明 | まず is an adverb which means "first of all." |
英訳 | first of all; first; to begin with; before everything |
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5. Verb-masu合う
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説明 | 合う, when combined with another verb, forms a compound verb, adding the meaning "to each other." |
英訳 | V (to/for) each other; V with |
文型 | V-masu合う:話し合う; 見せ合う; 助け合う; 信じ合う |
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6. Verb-non-pastように
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説明 | (1) This construction is used to state either a purpose or the way in which something is to be done. In XようにY, X represents a state or event which is beyond the control of the subject of Y. The verb form before ように is often a potential form or a negative form. (2) In the similar construction XためにY, X represents an action which can be controlled by the subject of Y, which XようにY implies that a certain consequence (X) will arise as the result of an action (Y). Thus, in the following example, ように cannot be used.
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英訳 | so that ~; in such a way that ~ |
文型 | V-plain.non-pastように:分かるように; 読めるように; 遅れないように |
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7. あるNoun
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説明 | あるX is used when the speaker has a specific X in mind, but he/she does not need to or want to be specific. In the above sentence, for example, ある選手 refers to a baseball player and the ある indicates that the speaker has a specific player in mind. In Exs. 1, 2, and 3, ある日 refers to a specific day, ある有名人 refers to a specific person and ある所 refers to an imaginary place in a folk tale, respectively. |
英訳 | a; a certain; some; some(one/thing) |
文型 | あるN:ある人; ある町; ある年 |
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8. Sentence{の/ん}{ではないだろうか/ではないでしょうか/じゃないかな}
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説明 | This ending indicates the speaker's conjecture and is used to express an opinion in an indecisive fashion. Although the negative form ではない is used, the is no negative meaning. のではない{だろう/でしょう}か are used only in written language, and のではないだろうか is the more formal form. ん{ではないでしょう/じゃないかな} are used only in spoken language. んじゃないかな is more casual. |
英訳 | I think that ~; Isn't it that ~? |
文型 | Type 2a |
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9. ~ず(に)
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説明 | ずに is synonymous with ないで when ないで means "without doing something" or "instead of doing something." に is sometimes omitted. |
英訳 | without V-ing; instead of V-ing |
文型 | V-naiずに:行かずに; 食べずに (Exception: する せずに) |
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10. {そう/こう/ああ}いうNoun
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説明 | (1) When そういう, こういう and ああいう refer to something/someone the speaker sees or perceives, they are used for something/someone close to the hearer, close to the speaker, and away from both the speaker and the hearer, respectively. (2) These phrases are also used to refer to something/someone the speaker or the hearer has just mentioned. Specifically, そういう is used when the speaker has just mentioned something/someone (Ex. 1 and 2). こういう is used when the speaker has just stated something factual about something/someone (Ex. 3). And, ああいう is used when the information the speaker or the hearer has just mentioned is known to both (Ex. 4). |
英訳 | that/this kind of; such |
文型 | {そう/こう/ああ}いうN |
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11. Sentenceと言える{だろう/でしょう}
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説明 | This pattern is used when the speaker is quite certain that his/her statement is correct but wants to soften the statement so as not to appear too assertive. This is a formal expression. |
英訳 | It probably can be said that ~; It is probably all right to say that ~ |
文型 | S-plainと言えるだろう |
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12. XはY(という)ことなの{である/だ}
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説明 | This structure is used to indicate what X is or what X means. なのだ makes the statement more emphatic. である is a formal form of だ. |
英訳 | X is Y; X means that Y |
文型 | a. Type 1 b. Nのことなのである:日本人のことなのである |
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13. ~ん{だけど/ですが}
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説明 | Sんだけど/ですが is used as a preliminary remark by the speaker to inform the hearer of the speaker's desire, the current situation, etc. before (a) asking a question related to that desire/situation, (b) asking for an opinion or for advice, or (c) making a request. This phrase can also be used to extend an invitation or an offer. When making a request, the request is often unstated, as shown below.
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英訳 | but (in English, null in most situations) (see p.126 言語ノート6「が and けれども」.) |
文型 | Type 2a |
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14. それで
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説明 | それで is a sentence-initial conjugation. It precedes a fact, conclusion, decision, etc. In "S1。それで、S2," S1 is the cause/reason for the information stated in S2. それで cannot be used when S2 is the speaker's judgement, request, or command. In this situation, だから should be used, as shown in the following examples:
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英訳 | because of that; so; that's why; for that reason |
文型 | S1。それで、S2。 |
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15. Question Word ~ても
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説明 | When ても is used with a Question Word, the phrase means "no matter" or "without regard to." |
英訳 | no matter what/who/when/where/how |
文型 | a. QW (Prt) + (V/A)-teも:何を見ても; いつ聞いても; どんなに/いくら頑張っても; どんなに/いくら暑くても b. QW (Prt) + (ANa/N) + でも:どんなに/いくら不便でも; 誰が先生でも |
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16. ~うちに
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説明 | (ない)うちに is used when someone does something before a situation or state changes, 間に is used in similar situations, but it cannot be used with the negative forms of verbs, as seen below:
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英訳 | while ~ still; ~ないうちに = before (something happens) |
文型 |
a. V-plain.nonpastうちに:{覚えている/時間がある/雨が降らない/忘れない}うちに b. A-plain.nonpastうちに:{暖かい/若い}うちに c. ANaなうちに:元気なうちに d. Nのうちに:{子供の/大学生の/休みの}うちに (N cannot be an event or action noun, such as 試合、試験、勉強、and 買い物.) |
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17. できれば;できたら
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説明 | The phrase literally means "if possible." It is also used when the speaker asks a favor of someone in a less direct way. できれば is slightly more formal than できたら. |
英訳 | if possible; if you don't mind; if it's all right |
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18. ~たばかり
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説明 | V-plain.pastばかり indicates that someone has just done something or something has just happened. The noun-modification form is ばかりの. |
英訳 | have just V-ed |
文型 |
a. V-plain.pastばかりだ:食べたばかりだ; 読んだばかりだ b. V-plain.pastばかりのN:買ったばかりの自転車; 生まれたばかりの子猫 |
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第5課:日本の食べ物 (Tobira: p.118-123)
1. Number+Counter当たり
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説明 | 当たり is used with 一 (or 1) and a counter to mean "per." Sometimes numbers other than one are used, as in Ex. 3. |
英訳 | per ~; each ~; a ~; for a ~ |
文型 |
a. Number+Counter当たりNumber+Counter:1時間当たり10ドル b. Number+Counter当たりのN:一人当たりのコスト |
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2. SentenceのはXの方だ
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説明 | The structure SのはXの方だ is used to emphasize that it is X that makes the proposition in S true. |
英訳 | It is X that S. |
文型 | Type 2a |
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3. Number(+Counter)({ぐらい/くらい})は;Noun(だけ)は
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説明 | When the particle は follows a quantifier (i.e., a word of quantity such as 3本 and 少し), it adds the meaning "at least." だけは and ぐらいは or (くらいは) after a noun have the same meaning. |
英訳 | at least |
文型 | a. Number(+Counter)は b. Nだけは c. N{ぐらい/くらい}は |
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4. Nounをはじめ
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説明 | Nounをはじめ is used to present a primary example when mentioning a group of things or people. |
英訳 | beginning with ~; starting with; including |
文型 | Nをはじめ |
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5. ~以上/~以下
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説明 | X以上 and X以下 mean "equal to or more than X" and "equal to or less than X," respectively. A Number+Counter or a demonostrative pronoun such as これ and それ commonly occurs before 以上 and 以下. When the topic is academic grades, grade symbols such as C and B can be used (e.g., C以上). |
英訳 | 以上 = more than; or more 以下 = less than; or less |
文型 |
a. Number(+Counter)以上/以下:3年生以上; 1万円以下; 4以上 b. Demonstrative pronoun以上/以下:これ以上; それ以下 |
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6. NounさえVerbば
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説明 | Noun さえ with a verb conditional form is used when the condition presented in the clause is the only condition to make the statement in the main clause true. さえ replaces the particles が and を in this structure; however, when other particles occur with さえ here, they do no drop, as shown in the following examples.
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英訳 | if ~ only ~; if ~ just ~; as long as |
文型 | NさえV-cond:お金さえあれば; お酒さえ飲まなければ |
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7. ついに
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説明 | The adverb ついに indicates that something happens or something expected doesn't happen, after waiting for it, longing for it, expecting it to happen, making an effort to make it happen, or after struggling/suffering in a hard situation, for a long time. |
英訳 | at last; finally; in the end; after all |
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8. {Noun/no-Adjective}化(する)
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説明 | The suffix 化 is affixed to nouns and no-adjectives and adds the meaning "-ization," as in "mechanization" and "digitization." |
英訳 |
~化する = -ize; make; become; change to ~化 = -ization; making ~; becoming ~; changing to ~ |
文型 |
a. N+化:日本化; 専門化; 機械化(mechanization); カタカナ化 b. ANo+化:一般化; 最適化(optimization) |
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9. ところが
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説明 | ところが is a sentence-initial conjunction used when something takes place which is unexpected from the preceding context. The sentence after ところが represents an event or action the speaker cannot control, as shown in the following examples:
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英訳 | however; but; nevertheless |
文型 | S1。ところが、S2。 |
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10. ~に違いない
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説明 | This structure indicates that the speaker is certain that something is true or is the case. It is used primarily in written language. |
英訳 | must; I'm sure/certain that ~; It is certain that ~; I'm certain that ~; be sure to V |
文型 | Type 3 |
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11. ~をもとに(して)
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説明 | をもとにして is a compound particle meaning "based on." して here is optional. The noun-modification form is をもとにした. |
英訳 | based on |
文型 | a. Nをもとに(して) b. N1をもとにしたN2 |
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12. Nounと{同じで/違って}
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説明 | The comparison phrases と同じで and と違って mean "just like ~" and "unlike ~," respectively. Note that the particle と is used when X and Y are in a reciprocal relationship, as seen in the following examples:
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英訳 | Nと同じで = just like N Nと違って = unlike N; different from N |
文型 | Nと{同じで/違って} |
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13. Nounらしい
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説明 | In addition to the meaning "seem," Nらしい means that something/someone is representative of N. XはNらしい often conveys the idea that X has the positive characteristics of N.
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英訳 | so much like ~; typical of ~; typical ~; -like |
文型 | Nらしい:男らしい; 日本らしい |
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14. Noun+的
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説明 | The suffix 的 is attached to nouns in order to change them to na-adjectives. When these adjectives modify nouns, な is sometimes omitted (Ex. 5). |
英訳 | -ic; -ive; -al; -like |
文型 | N+的:アメリカ的; 文学的; 書き言葉的; 一般的 |
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15. Sentenceたらいいのに(なあ)
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説明 | たらいいのに(なあ) is used to express the speaker's wish, which, in this structure, is usually counterfactual. なあ makes the wish more emotive. Verbs are commonly in the potential form and refer to the speaker's action. |
英訳 | I wish; I hope |
文型 | S-plain.pastらいいのに(なあ) |
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16. ほとんど
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説明 | ほとんど means "almost all; most of." Thus, it is used only when the amount of something is the issue. Note that ほとんど cannot be used in the following examples:
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英訳 |
ほとんど = almost all; most of (it/the time/etc.) ほとんど~ない = hardly (ever); rarely; almost no (thing) ほとんどのN = almost all N; most of N |
文型 | a. ほとんどV b. ほとんどのN |
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17. ~(ような)気がする
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説明 | ような気がする indicates that the speaker is not certain about something, but has a feeling that it's true. ような can be dropped without a change in meaning. |
英訳 | I feel that ~; have a feeling that ~; have the impression that ~; it seems to me that ~ |
文型 | Type 2b |
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18. Verbところ
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説明 | When used with verbs, ところ indicates a point in time. Depending on the tense of the preceding verb, it can be (a) the moment just before that action begins, (b) a moment in the midst of the action, or (c) the moment just after the action finishes. When the particle に follows ところ, the ところ clause is a time clause (Exs. 2 and 3). When the ところ clause is the object or subject of such verbs as 見る and 撮る, ところ indicates the scene in which the action takes place (Exs. 4 and 5). |
英訳 |
V-non-pastところ = (when) ~ is about to V V-teいるところ = (when) ~ is V-ing; (while) ~ is V-ing; (when) ~ is in the midst of V-ing V-pastところ = (after) ~ have just V-ed |
文型 |
a. V-non-pastところ:見るところ; 話すところ b. V-teいるところ:食べているところ; 考えているところ c. V-pastところ:食べたところ; できたところ |
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第6課:日本人と宗教 (Tobira: p.142-147)
1. ~に気がつく
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説明 | ~に気がつく can be preceded by nouns or sentences, and means "to notice N" or "realize/notice that S." The first sentence in 本文 above is an example of Sことに気がつく, and the second sentence is an example of Nに気がつく. Note that the こと in the two sentences are different. The first こと is a nominalizer meaning "that," and the second こと is a noun meaning "thing." (See p.150, 言語ノート7「もの and こと」.) |
英訳 | notice (that ~); realize that ~ |
文型 | a. Nに気がつく b. Sことに気がつく:Type 2c |
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2. Verb-non-pastように(と){願う/祈る}
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説明 | Sように(と) is used with verbs such as 願う "hope" and 祈る "pray," and expresses the speaker's hope or desire that what is stated in the sentence will become reality. |
英訳 | ~ように(と)願う = hope that ~ ~ように(と)祈る = pray that ~ |
文型 | V-non-past.plainように(と){願う/祈る} |
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3. NounもVerbば、NounもVerb
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説明 | This sentence structure is used to present some members in a group, things in a category, actions someone takes, characteristics of something/someone, etc., among others. Although the form of the verb here is conditional, the meaning is not conditional in this usage. The structure "N1もV-plainし、N2もV" is similar in meaning.
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英訳 | some do ~ and others do ~; do ~ and ~ among other things; sometimes ~ and sometimes ~; there are times when ~ and times when ~; ~ and also ~; ~ and ~ as well |
文型 | N1もV-cond、N2もV |
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4. ~のだろうか
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説明 | Sentenceの{だろう/でしょう}か is a self-addressed question. The question can be either a yes-no question or a wh-question. |
英訳 | I wonder ~ |
文型 | Type 2b |
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5. {そんな/こんな/あんな}Noun
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説明 | そんな, こんな, and あんな are synonymous with そういう, こういう, and ああいう, respectively. (see L4 文法ノート10) そんな, こんな, etc. are slightly more colloquial than そういう, こういう, etc. |
英訳 | そんな/あんな = that kind of ~; ~ like that こんな = this kind of ~; ~ like this |
文型 | {そんな/こんな/あんな}N:そんな映画; こんな問題; あんなシャツ |
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6. それぞれ
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説明 | それぞれ is used to focus on each individual or thing in a group of people or things, and means "each (one of them)." In some contexts a more natural interpretation may be "one's own" rather than "each one's." (Ex. 3) |
英訳 | each; one's own; in one's own way |
文型 | a. それぞれPredicate:それぞれ自分の経験を話す; それぞれおいしい b. それぞれのN:それぞれの国; それぞれの考え |
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7. ~らしい
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説明 | The auxiliary i-adjective らしい is used to express the speaker's conjecture based on what he/she has learned through an information source or his/her own observation. |
英訳 | seem; apparently; I heard that ~; it looks like |
文型 | Type 3 |
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8. Verb-masu続ける
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説明 | V-masu続ける means "continue doing something." This phrase is used when the subject continues doing something volitionally. |
英訳 | continue to; continue V-ing; go on V-ing; keep (on) V-ing; all the way; all the time |
文型 | V-masu続ける |
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9. ~ばかり
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説明 | ばかり is used to express the idea that someone does one thing all the time and does nothing else, or that someone chooses just one thing among others when doing something, as shown in the following examples:
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英訳 | nothing but ~; always; all the time |
文型 |
a. N(Prt)ばかりV:アニメばかり見る; 美代子とばかり踊る b. VNばかりする:勉強ばかりする c. V-teばかりいる:遊んでばかりいる |
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10. 真(っ)+i-Adjective-stem/Noun
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説明 | The prefix 真+Adjective indicates that the degree of something is very high or is at the highest level. The prefix 真+Noun indicates the center of a space or time span. The English translation of 真 varies according to the word which follows it. A glottal stop (っ) precedes the sounds [k], [s], and [sh]. Exceptions are: 赤 真っ赤; 青 真っ青; 北 真北; 昼間 真っ昼間 |
英訳 | very; pure; totally; right; mid- |
文型 |
a. 真(っ)+A-stem: 真新しい; 真っ暗; 真っ白 b. 真(っ)+N: 真上; 真夏; 真冬; 真東; 真南; 真向かい; 真横; 真っ先 |
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11. ~わけだ
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説明 | わけだ is used in the following situations: (a) when the speaker provides the reason for a previous statement (本文 and Ex.1); (b) when the speaker reaches a logical conclusion from what he/she has learned from the hearer or has discovered (Ex.2); (c) when the speaker understands the reason for what he/she has learned from the hearer or what he/she has discovered (Exs. 3~5). |
英訳 | The reason is that ~; It means that ~; That's why; No wonder ~; Naturally |
文型 | Type 2a |
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12. Nounでよければ
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説明 | Xでよければ presents a condition for doing something. It is also used when the speaker politely offers something to the hearer. |
英訳 | if ~ is all right; if ~ works; if ~ is acceptable; if you don't mind |
文型 | Nでよければ |
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13. 結構
本文 |
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説明 | The adverb 結構 indicates that the speaker feels that the degree/level/amount/etc. of something is not high, but is higher than average. |
英訳 | fairly; pretty; rather; quite |
文型 | a. 結構{A/ANa+Da}:結構おいしい; 結構不便だ b. 結構Verb Phrase:結構上手に書く; 結構誰とでも話す; 結構昔からある |
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14. なかなかAdjective
本文 |
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説明 | The adverb なかなか is synonymous with 結構. The major difference is that なかなか is not usually used with adjectives and adverbs with negative meanings, such as つまらない "boring" and 不便だ "inconvenient." Note that なかなか also indicates that the speaker is impressed by the way something/someone is or the way someone does something. |
英訳 | quite; fairly; pretty; considerably |
文型 |
a. なかなか{A/ANa+Da}:なかなか広い; なかなかきれいだ b. なかなかAdv:なかなか上手に |
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15. そう言えば
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説明 | The conjunctive phrase そう言えば is used when the speaker is reminded of something by the hearer's remark or the speaker's own remark. |
英訳 | That reminds me; Now I remember; indeed |
文型 | そう言えば、S。 |
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16. ~ということ
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説明 | ということ changes a sentence into a noun clause, but does not add any meaning. Sということ can be marked by が, を, etc. Sということ is usually used in written language. |
英訳 | that; V-ing |
文型 | S-plainということ |
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17. ~は~となっている
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説明 | となっている indicates that what is stated in the preceding sentence is something beyond the speaker's control. The preceding statements are often findings or matters decided by others. The structure of the sentence before となっている is "AはB." Note that だ does not occur after B. |
英訳 | happen to be; It turns out that ~; It's been decided that ~; The rule is that ~ |
文型 | AはBとなっている (B is a noun or a noun equivalent, which includes "Number+Counter" and "N+Prt.") |
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第7課:日本のポップカルチャー (Tobira: p.170-174)
1. Sentence。{では/それでは/じゃ}、Sentence。
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説明 | では is an abbreviated form of それでは. それでは literally means "if that is the case" and それ refers to what is stated in the preceding sentence(s). それでは and では are usually used in the written language or formal spoken language. In ordinary or casual conversation, the contracted form of それじゃ or じゃ is used. |
英訳 | If that's the case; If so; In that case; Then; Well then |
文型 | S1。{では/それでは}、S2。 |
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2. その上
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説明 | その上 is used when the speaker wants to emphasize an additional piece of information. S2 usually contains the particle も or まで. |
英訳 | on top of that; in addition (to that); what's more; besides; moreover |
文型 | S1。その上、S2。 |
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3. Noun(Particle)さえ
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説明 | さえ is an emphatic particle. In non-conditional clauses it means "even." When さえ is used, the particle が never occurs, を usually does not occur, へ and the directional に are optional, and the other particles, including the locational に, で, と, and から, are mandatory. |
英訳 | even |
文型 | N(Prt)さえ:先生さえ; アメリカ(へ/に)さえ; 小学校からさえ |
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4. ~向け
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説明 | The suffix 向け adds the meaning "made for; for the use of; directed toward." 向け is often affixed to nouns which refer to people, countries and organizations. |
英訳 | for; made for; for the use of; directed to |
文型 | a. N向けだ b. N向けにV c. N1向けのN2 |
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5. ~である
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説明 | である is the formal plain form of だ and can be affixed to nouns as well as to stems of na-adjectives and no-adjectives. である is used in formal writing. In very formal speech the polite form であります may be used. Compare the following forms. である (formal plain affirmative) であります (formal polite affirmative) ではない (formal plain negative) ではありません (formal polite negative) である can occur before nouns in relative clauses while だ cannot.
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英訳 | be |
文型 |
a. Affirmative: である/であった b. Negative: ではない/ではなかった c. {N/ANa/ANo}{である/であった/ではない/ではなかった}N |
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6. Verb-masu出す
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説明 | V-masu出す has two meanings:
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英訳 | V out; begin to V; start to V; begin V-ing; start V-ing |
文型 | V-masu出す |
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7. ~ない~は{ない/いない}
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説明 | This construction is used to create sentences containing double negatives VないNは(い)ない is equivalent to "all Ns V." |
英訳 | V-naiないNは{ない/いない} = There is no N which/who does not V |
文型 | V-naiないNは{ない/いない}:読めない漢字はない; 分からない人はいない |
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8. XはYに当たる;Yに当たるX
本文 |
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説明 | に当たる in this context means "be equivalent to; correspond to." It is often used to contrast words/phrases in two languages or organizations/professional titles in two countries. |
英訳 |
XはYに当たる = X corresponds to Y; X is equivalent to Y; X is equal to Y Yに当たるZはXだ = the Z which is equivalent to Y is X; the Z which corresponds to Y is X |
文型 | N1はN2に当たる |
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9. Sentence(という)ことになる
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説明 | Sentence(という)ことになる is usually preceded by a topic phrase (Ex. 1), a conditional clause (Ex. 3), or a reason clause (Ex. 2), and indicates that the (non-)action, event or situation stated in the preceding phrase/clause leads to a logical conclusion or a certain situation. |
英訳 | end up (with); mean that ~; cause |
文型 | Type 1, Type 2c or Type 3 (Any forms are acceptable.) |
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10. ~(という)傾向が{ある/見られる}
本文 |
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説明 | This construction is used when someone or something has a tendency to do something. It is commonly used in written language and formal speech. という is optional. |
英訳 | have a tendency to; have an inclination to; there is a tendency to; tend to |
文型 | a. {V/A}-plain.non-past(という)傾向がある b. ANaな傾向がある c. Nの傾向がある |
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11. (もし)Sentenceとしたら、
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説明 | Sとする means "to assume/suppose that S." Thus, Sとしたら literally means "if I/we/you suppose that S." This construction is usually used to present a hypothetical situation. It can also be used for an actual situation (see Ex. 3), in which case the speaker is presenting the situation as if it were hypothetical in order to indicate something indirectly. もし here is optional. It emphasizes that the speaker is presenting the situation as a hypothetical one. |
英訳 | Suppose ~; If ~; If you were to ~; If ~ was/were ~; If ~ V-ed; If ~ did not V |
文型 | S-plain.non-pastとしたら |
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12. Nounが~する
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説明 | This construction with onomatopoetic phrases is used to describe one's physiological/psychological state or the way something feels or looks. |
英訳 | Note: There is no general structure or phrase in English which is equivalent to this construction. In English the equivalent ideas are expressed using adjectives or verbs (and sometimes verb plus adverb). |
文型 | Nが[onomatopoeia]する |
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13. ~くせに
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説明 | The conjunction くせに is used when something commonly expected from information in the subordinate clause (i.e., the くせに phrase/clause) does not happen or is not the case. In most situations, くせに expresses the speaker's anger, frustration or disagreement. The emotion is not directed toward the speaker himself/herself, but toward the hearer or a third person. When くせに is used, the subject of the main clause and that of the subordinate clause must be the same. Thus, くせに cannot be used in the following sentence:
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英訳 | although ~; in spite of the fact that ~; and yet ~ |
文型 | Type 2b |
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14. 話し言葉の縮約形(contracted forms)
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説明 | In casual conversation contracted forms are commonly used. |
文型 |
a. ~てる = ~ている (~てます = ~ています); ~てた = ~ていた b. ~じゃ = では c. ~なくちゃ = ~なくては(いけない/ならない); ~なきゃ = ~なければ(いけない/ならない) d. ~ちゃう = ~てしまう; ~ちゃった = ~てしまった e. ~とく = ~ておく; ~といた = ~ておいた f. ~たげる = ~てあげる; ~たげた = ~てあげた g. ~といたげる = ~ておいてあげる |
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15. ~(という)わけ{ではない/じゃない}
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説明 | (という)わけではない is used to deny a statement. The use of という does not change the statement's meaning. |
英訳 | It's not that ~; It doesn't mean that ~; I don't mean that ~; It's not true that ~; It's not the case that ~ |
文型 |
a. ~わけ{ではない/じゃない} {V/A}-plain(という)わけではない ANa{な/だった/じゃない/じゃなかった}わけではない N/ANo{という/だった/じゃない/じゃなかった}わけではない b. ~というわけ{ではない/じゃない}: Type 3 |
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第8課:日本の伝統芸能: (Tobira: p.191-196)
1. NounはNoun{と/に}関係がある
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説明 | This sentence pattern is used to show that X is related in some way to Y. The particle after the first noun can be either と or に. When this pattern is used in relative clauses, の is commonly used after 関係 in place of が. (In general, の often replaces the particle が in relative clause constructions.) |
英訳 | XはY{と/に}関係がある = X is related in some way to Y; X has something to do with Y |
文型 | a. N1はN2{と/に}関係がある b. N1{と/に}関係{が/の}あるN2 |
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2. ~(こと)によって
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説明 | によって indicates the cause, the means, or the agent in passive sentences. |
英訳 | because; because of; due to; by V-ing; by means of; via; through; by |
文型 | a. Nによって b. ~ことによって:Type 2c |
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3. すると
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説明 |
すると connects two sentences, S1 and S2, in the following situations: (1) The action in S1 causes what is said in S2. (Exs. 1 and 2) (2) The action in S1 leads to the discovery of what is said in S2. (Ex. 3) (3) From the information implied in S1, the speaker confirms that S2 is the case. (Ex. 4) |
英訳 | then |
文型 | S1。すると、S2。 |
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4. ~通り(に)
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説明 | When 通り is modified by a verb or a noun, it means "the way; as someone does; as something indicates." 通り can aslo be used as a suffix, in which case 通り is directly affixed to nouns and the pronunciation changes to どおり. |
英訳 | the way; as; exactly like; following; according to |
文型 |
a. V-plain通り(に):言う通り(に); 聞いた通り(に); 教えてもらった通り(に); 思った通り(に) b. Nの通りに:約束の通り(に); 説明の通り(に); 計画の通り(に) c. N通り(に):約束通り(に); 説明通り(に); 計画通り(に) |
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5. ~ば~ほど
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説明 | This structure is used when the more something happens or is in some state, the more another thing happens or is in some state. |
英訳 | The (more) ~, the (more) ~ |
文型 |
a. {V/A}-cond {V/A}-plainほど (When V is a suru-verb, the second VN is usually omitted.):食べれば食べるほど; 勉強すれば(勉強)するほど; 安ければ安いほど b. ANaならANaほど:便利なら便利なほど c. {ANa/NP}であれば({ANa/NP})あるほど:便利であれば(便利で)あるほど; いい学生であれば(いい学生で)あるほど |
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6. さて
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説明 | さて always occurs at the beginning of a sentence and signals that (a) the speaker/writer is beginning a new topic (the new topic and the previous topic may be part of the same discourse), (b) the speaker/writer is going to ask a question about the information just provided, or (c) the speaker is leaving. さて is not used in casual situations. |
英訳 | well; now; well now |
文型 | (S1。) さて、S2。 |
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7. Nounを中心{と/に}する
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説明 | Nを中心{と/に}する literally means "to make N the center." This phrase is usually used in two forms: (a) Nを中心{と/に}(して) to modify verbs, and (b) Nを中心{と/に}した to modify nouns. The phrase indicates that something takes place around N or with N as the center/focus, or that someone does something focusing on N. |
英訳 | (centering) around; focusing on; mainly; with N as the center/focus/leader/etc. |
文型 | a. Nを中心{と/に}(して) b. N1を中心{と/に}したN2 (=N1中心のN2) |
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8. 逆~
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説明 | 逆 is used to indicate that X's way of doing something is the opposite of Y's way of doing it, or that the way X is or the way X happens is the opposite of the way Y is or the way Y happens. In different contexts, 逆 indicates that X's way of doing something, the way X is or the way X happens is the opposite of the way which is common, expected or intended. |
英訳 |
逆だ = be opposite; the other way 逆にV = in the opposite direction; the other way; the wrong way; contrary to one's expectation; contrary to one's intention; conversely 逆のN = opposite N; the reverse of N |
文型 | a. Xは逆だ b. 逆にV c. 逆のN |
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9. ~はず
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説明 | The dependent noun はず indicates that the speaker/writer or someone he/she empathizes with (e.g., the main character in a story) believes or expects that what is stated before はず is true based on his/her knowledge or memory at the moment of speech or at the time of the event stated in the main clause. The negative form can be either ~ないはずだ or ~はずがない. However, the sense of negation is stronger in はずがない. When Sはずだ modifies a noun, の must be used between はず and the noun. |
英訳 | should; I expected that ~; I believe that ~ |
文型 | Type 2b |
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10. ~点
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説明 | 点 is used to mean "point" (in the sense of a single fact, idea or opinion in an argument, discussion, etc.), "aspect," or "viewpoint/standpoint." |
英訳 |
point; aspect; standpoint; viewpoint; respect S(という)点が = the fact that ~ N{という/の}点で(は) = in terms of ~; with regard to ~; with respect to ~ S(という)点で = in that ~ |
文型 | a. S+という点:Type 1 b. S+点:Type 2c c. DemA点:その点 d. N{という/の}点 |
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11. ますます
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説明 | ますます occurs with verbs, the adverbial forms of adjectives and adverbs. It indicates that something happens to an even greater (or lesser) degree than before. ますます is not used for future controllable actions, as seen below:
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英訳 | more and more; -er and -er; increasingly; even more; even -er; still more; still -er |
文型 |
a. ますます(~)V:ますます減る; ますます雪が降る; ますます興味がなくす b. ますますA-stemくなる:ますます寒くなる c. ますますANaになる:ますます元気になる d. ますますAdv:ますますゆっくり |
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12. Verb-masu直す
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説明 | 直す、when attached to the masu-stems of verbs, creates compound verbs with the meaning "again; re-." |
英訳 | again; re-V |
文型 | V-masu直す:書き直す; 読み直す; 考え直す |
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13. ~ことは~(が/けれど)
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説明 | This structure is used when the speaker/writer admits that a proposition is true but wants to qualify the proposition with an additional remark. |
英訳 | It is certainly true that ~, but; indeed ~, but; do V~, but; ~ IS/ARE/WAS/etc. ~, but |
文型 |
a. {V/A}-plain.affことは{V/A}-plain.aff:行くことは{行く/行った}が; 行ったことは行ったが; 安いことは{安い/安かった}が; 安かったことは安かったが b. ANa{な/だった}ことはANa{だ/だった}が:便利なことは便利{だ/だった}が; 便利だったことは便利だったが c. NPはNP{だ/だった}が:いい人はいい人{だ/だった}が d. NP{だった}ことはNP{だ/だった}が:いい人だったことはいい人だったが |
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14. おかげ; せい
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説明 | Both おかげ and せい are dependent nouns indicating cause. The former is used when the cause brings about a desirable result, and the latter when the cause brings about an unwanted result. |
英訳 | because; due to |
文型 | Type 2b |
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15. どんどん
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説明 | どんどん expresses the idea that something proceeds from one stage to another or continues to happen at a fast pace with no delay, or that someone keeps doing something with no hesitation. In some situations, both ますます and どんどん can be used. For example, ますます can be used in place of どんどん in Exs. 1, 2 and 3, although ますます does not convey the idea that something happens at a fast pace. Thus, ますます cannot replace どんどん in Ex. 2, where the point of the sentence is the fact that the ice in Greenland is melting at a fast pace. ますます cannot be used in Ex. 4, either, because this is a future controllable action. (see 文法ノート11 above) |
英訳 | at a fast pace; one after another; keep V-ing vigorously; with no hesitation; with no delay |
文型 | どんどんV |
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16. ~たびに
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説明 | たびに expresses the idea that each time someone does something, something else takes place. When たびに is modified by a noun, the noun refers to an action (e.g., 旅行, 計算(calculation)), event (e.g., お祭り, テスト), or a certain time (e.g., クリスマス, 休み). |
英訳 | every time; each time; on every ~; whenever |
文型 | a. V-plain.non-pastたびに b. Nのたびに |
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17. とうとう
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説明 | とうとう indicates that an expected situation has occurred after an extended period of time. The adverb ついに is similar to とうとう and can be used in place of とうとう. ついに is more formal. (See L5 文法ノート7) |
英訳 | finally; at (long) last; eventually; in the end; after all |
文型 | とうとうV |
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第9課:日本の教育 (Tobira: p.214-219)
1. ~ても~なくても
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説明 | XてもXなくても means "whether X or not." |
英訳 | whether ~ or not |
文型 |
a. V-teもV-naiなくても b. A-teもA-naiなくても c. {ANa/ANo/N}でも{ANa/ANo/N}{じゃ/で}なくても |
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2. 前者は~、後者は~。
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説明 | This sentence structure is used to refer separately to the two things, people, etc. mentioned in the previous sentence. |
英訳 | The former ~ and the latter ~ |
文型 | 前者は(~) {V-te/A-te/ANaで/Nで}、後者は~ |
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3. ~といったNoun
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説明 | といったX is used to present examples of X. X is always a noun or a noun phrase. Nouns, phrases or sentences can precede といった. When nouns precede といった, usually two or more nouns are presented, but when sentences or phrases precede といった, usually only one sentence or phrase is presented. などのN and のようなN are similar to といったN, but they are usually precede by nouns or noun phrases, not by sentences. |
英訳 | like; such as |
文型 |
a. N1{や/、}N2({や/、}N3~)といった{N/NP} b. S1-plain(、S2-plain、~)といった{N/NP} c. Phrase1(、Phrase2、~)といった{N/NP} |
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4. 一方(で)、; Sentence一方(で)
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説明 | The conjunction 一方 is used to present two contrastive situations or two concurrent states, events or actions. 一方 can be used either as a sentence-initial conjunction or a sentence-final conjunction. In the latter case, で may follow 一方. 一方 is usually used in written language. |
英訳 |
a. S1。一方、S2。= on the other hand b. S1一方(で)、S2。= while; when; at the same time; on the other hand |
文型 |
a. S1。一方、S2。 b. S1一方(で)、S2。:Type 2c c. VNの一方(で):増加(increase)の一方(で) |
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5. あるいは
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説明 | あるいは is used to connect alternatives. It is usually used in formal speech or written language. |
英訳 | or; either ~ or ~ |
文型 |
a. N1(、N2、~)、あるいはN:日本、韓国、あるいは中国 b. S1か、あるいは、S2か:Type 3 |
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6. なかなか~ない
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説明 | なかなか with the negative form of a verb means "not easily" or "not readily." Usually, it is used when something desirable doesn't happen easily or when something that is supposed to happen doesn't happen. Compare the following sentences:
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英訳 | not easily; not readily; difficult to ~; slow to; to refuse to |
文型 | なかなかV-naiない |
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7. つまり
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説明 | つまり is used to rephrase or restate what has just been mentioned or stated. |
英訳 | That is (to say); in other words; namely; (That) means; You mean ~? |
文型 |
a. N1/NP1、つまり、N2/NP2 b. N/NP(というの)は、つまり~{だ/(という)ことだ} |
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8. そこで
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説明 | そこで is used to indicate an action (to be) taken because of the situation presented in the previous sentence. それで (see L4 文法ノート14) can be used in place of そこで; however, そこで can replace それで only when the action in S2 is controllable, as shown below:
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英訳 | because of that; therefore; so |
文型 | S1、そこで、S2。 |
例文 |
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9. ~以外{のNoun/に}
本文 |
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説明 |
X以外のY means "Y excluding X." のY is often omitted (Ex.1). X以外に means "besides X." に is sometimes omitted (Ex. 4). |
英訳 | but; except; other than; besides |
文型 |
a. {N1/DemP}以外のN2:日本人以外の人; これ以外の問題 b. {N/DemP}以外に:スポーツ以外に; それ以外に |
例文 |
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10. 決して~ない
本文 |
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説明 | 決して with negative endings of verbs, adjectives, etc. expresses strong negation of an idea, situation, possibility, etc. or strong prohibition. |
英訳 | never; by no means; not ~ at all; not ~ in the least; definitely not |
文型 |
a. 決してV-nai{ない/なかった}; 決してV-masu{ません/ませんでした} b. 決してA-nai{ない/なかった/ありません/ありませんでした} c. 決して{ANa/ANo/N}{では/じゃ}{ない/なかった/ありません/ありませんでした} |
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11. Sentenceという理由で
本文 |
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説明 | という理由で (lit. for the reason that ~) is used to present the reason for a state, event, or action stated in the main clause. This phrase is usually used in the written language. |
英訳 | because |
文型 | S-plainという理由で |
例文 |
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練習 |
12. ~ら
本文 |
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説明 | The plural marker ら is often used with demonstrative pronouns and certain personal pronouns. Person pronouns with ら are not used in situations where politeness must be shown. |
英訳 | these; those; they; -s; and others |
文型 |
a. Demonstrative pronounら:これら; それら; あれら (These can be used in polite speech.) b. Personal pronounら:彼ら; 彼女ら; 僕ら; 君ら |
例文 |
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13. ~に対して
本文 |
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説明 | に対して is used when contrasting two actions, states, situations, etc. (see L10 文法ノート14 for other uses of に対して.) |
英訳 | whereas; on the other hand; in contrast |
文型 | a. Nに対して b. Sのに対して:Type 2a |
例文 |
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練習 |
14. ~限り
本文 |
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説明 | X限り is used when something is the case or is true as long as the condition X holds true. 限り is also used to indicate the extent to which one can do something or one knows something (e.g., as far as one can; as far as one knows). |
英訳 | as long as; as far as; while; until; unless; as much as (one can) |
文型 |
a. V-plain限り:いる限り; 見た限り; やめない限り; できる限り b. Nで{ある/ない}限り:人間である限り; 子供でない限り c. ANoで{ある/ない}限り:本当である限り; 本当ではない限り (The use of i-/na-adjectives here is very limited.) |
例文 |
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15. ~にもかかわらず
本文 |
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説明 | XにもかかわらずY means "Y in spite of (the fact that) X." This sentence construction is used when Y is the case even though Y is usually not expected from X. |
英訳 | in spite of (the fact that ~); despite (the fact that ~); although; though; nevertheless |
文型 | Type 3 |
例文 |
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練習 |
16. せっかく
本文 |
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説明 | せっかく is used in the following situations:
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英訳 | with effort; at great pain; take the trouble to do~; ~, which is a rare occasion/event/etc. |
文型 |
a. せっかくV{のだから/のに} b. せっかくのN c. せっかく{ですが/ですけど/だけど/etc.} d. せっかく{です/だ}から |
例文 |
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17. ~{と/って}言っても
本文 |
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説明 | と言っても is used when clarifying what has just been said in order to avoid misunderstanding. って is used in place of と in casual conversation or writing. |
英訳 | although ~ say/said that ~; even though ~ say/said that ~ |
文型 | Type 1 |
例文 |
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練習 |
18. 思うように~ない
本文 |
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説明 | This phrase means that something is not in accord with the speaker's/writer's (or the subject's) wish or desire. The verb potential form is usually used in this structure. |
英訳 | not ~ as one wishes |
例文 |
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第10課:日本の便利な店 (Tobira: p.236-240)
1. ~ほど~
本文 |
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説明 | The particle ほど is used to express the degree of a state. When a sentence precedes ほど, the element just before ほど is a verb. |
英訳 | to the extent that ~; so~ that~ (almost) ~; not as ~ as N; to (this/that) degree; (this/that) much |
文型 |
a. V-plain.non-pastほど:死ぬほど; 寝られないほど; 驚くほど b. Nほど:スミスさんほど; 日本語ほど c. DemPほど:これほど; それほど; あれほど |
例文 |
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2. Sentenceという。
本文 |
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説明 | という indicates that what is said in the preceding sentence is not firsthand information. |
英訳 | It is said that ~; They say that ~ |
文型 | S-plainという |
例文 |
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3. Nounに合わせて; Noun1に合ったNoun2
本文 |
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説明 | The literal meaning of Xに合わせて is "fitting/matching/adjusting something to X." It is often used to mean "making something suitable for X" or "according to X." The noun-modification form is Xに合った. |
英訳 |
Nに合わせて = making ~ suitable for N; according to N N1に合ったN2 = N2 suitable for N1 |
文型 |
a. Nに合わせて:学生のレベルに合わせて b. N1に合ったN2:学生のレベルに合ったカリキュラム |
例文 |
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練習 |
4. まるで~よう{に/な/だ}
本文 |
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説明 | This structure is used to introduce a simile, i.e., to describe a thing, person, action, etc. by comparing it with a similar thing, person, action, etc. まるで is an emphatic marker. |
英訳 | as if ~ (were/-ed); just like |
文型 |
a. まるでV-plainように:まるで{知っている/知らない/知っていた/知らなかった}ように b. まるでN{の/じゃない/だった/じゃなかった}ように:まるで子供{の/じゃない/だった/じゃなかった}ように c. Noun-modification form: ~ようなN d. Sentence-ending form: ~ようだ |
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練習 |
5. 言うまでもない; ~は言うまでもなく、~も
本文 |
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説明 | This phrase is used when the speaker mentions something obvious or something assumed to be known to the hearer. It is commonly used in written language. |
英訳 | Needless to say; It goes without saying that ~; It is obvious that ~; not to mention ~; let alone ~ |
文型 |
a. (Xは)言うまでもなく、S。:言うまでもなく、夏は暑い; 東京は言うまでもなく、人が多い b. S{こと/の}は言うまでもない。:地震が怖いのは、言うまでもない c. N1は言うまでもなくN2も |
例文 |
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6. Nounまで(も)~
本文 |
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説明 | まで(も) is used to present something which is considered to be beyond one's expectation or imagination. |
英訳 | even; to even |
文型 |
a. Nまで(も):話すロボットまで(も)ある b. N1からN2まで(も):ラップからクラシック音楽まで(も) c. N1だけでなくN2まで(も):子供だけでなく大人まで(も) |
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7. Noun1でもNoun2でも
本文 |
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説明 | XでもYでも is used to provide examples for the statement in the sentence. This structure implies that there are also things other than the examples which make the statement true. Note that XもYも (both X and Y) does not carry such an implication. |
英訳 | including X and Y; whether (it is) X or Y |
文型 | N1でもN2でも;漢字でもカタカナでも; 子供でも大人でも |
例文 |
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練習 |
8. したがって
本文 |
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説明 | したがって indicates that the following statement is a/the logical consequence of what is stated in the preceding sentence. It is usually used in written language. |
英訳 | therefore; accordingly; consequently; as a result; so |
文型 | S1(reason/cause)。したがって、S2(consequence)。 |
例文 |
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9. ~(という)のは事実だ
本文 |
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説明 | S(という)のは事実だ is used when the speaker wants to claim that something is true or is a fact, or when he/she admits that something is true or is a fact. The presence of という does not change the meaning. |
英訳 | It is {true/a fact} that ~ |
文型 |
a. ~というのは事実だ:Type 1 b. ~のは事実だ:Type 2a |
例文 |
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練習 |
10. Nounという点から考えると
本文 |
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説明 | という点から考えると is used to indicate someone's view from the standpoint of X. Examples of X include business, environment, education, etc. |
英訳 | to view from the standpoint of ~; from the perspective of ~ |
文型 | Nという点から考えると:環境という点から考えると; 健康という点から考えると |
例文 |
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練習 |
11. Sentence上に
本文 |
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説明 | The conjunction 上に introduces additional information emphatically. |
英訳 | in addition to ~; besides ~; not only ~ but also; moreover; ~ as well |
文型 | Type 2b |
例文 |
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練習 |
12. ~ことに
本文 |
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説明 | ことに is used to express the speaker's feeling or subjective judgement about what is said in the main clause. ことに can only be used with a limited set of words. |
英訳 | It is ~ that ~; I am/We are ~ that ~; To my ~ |
文型 |
A-plain.non-pastことに:悲しいことに; 嬉しいことに; 面白いことに ANaなことに;残念なことに(to one's regret); 幸せなことに V-plainことに;驚いたことに(to one's surprise); 腹の立つことに(what makes me angry is that ~) |
例文 |
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13. Sentence1。だが、Sentence2。
本文 |
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説明 | だが is a disjunctive conjunction. The preceding sentence (S1) and the following sentence (S2) present contrastive statements or opposing ideas. Note that でも, けれど and けど are colloquial. けれども, しかしながら, だが and が are used primarily in written language. しかし can be used in both written and spoken language. |
英訳 | but; however |
文型 | S1。だが、S2。 |
例文 |
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14. Nounに対して
本文 |
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説明 | The compound particle に対して is used to mark something to/toward/about which one does something, or mark someone to/toward whom one does something or owes something. In different contexts, に対して is used to mark something one has an interest in. に対する is a noun-modifiction form. (The に対して introduced here should not be confused with に対して in L9 文法ノート13, which is used to contrast two actions, states, situations, etc.) |
英訳 | toward; for; in; with regard to |
文型 | a. Nに対して b. N1に対するN2 |
例文 |
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練習 |
15. Verb-non-pastこと(は)ない
本文 |
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説明 | ~することはない means "there is no need to do ~." In casual conversation は may drop. |
英訳 | don't have to ~; don't need to ~; It's not necessary to ~; There is no need to ~ |
文型 | V-plain.non-pastことはない |
例文 |
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練習 |
16. ~かというと
本文 |
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説明 | Question Word + かというと literally means "if I were to tell you who/what/when/etc." In general this phrase is used to emphasize the information which follows or to delay providing the information in order to keep the hearer in suspense or to stall while recalling it. どちらかというと is a set phrase meaning "if anything; rather." {どうして/なぜ}かというと requires that the sentence end with から {だ/です/etc.}. |
英訳 |
どちらかというと = if anything; rather; if I have to decide {どうして/なぜ}かというと = The reason is (that ~); because {いつ/だれ/etc.}かというと = to tell you when/who/etc. ~ (it is ~) |
文型 | QWかというと:{だれ/どこ/どちら/いつ/どうして/etc.}かというと |
例文 |
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練習 |
17. それなら
本文 |
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説明 | それなら literally means "if that's the case." それ meaning "that" refers to the speaker's previous statement or the statement which was just made by the hearer. |
英訳 | then; in that case; if so |
例文 |
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練習 |
第11課:日本の歴史 (Tobira: p.257-262)
1. 少なくない
本文 |
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説明 | 少なくない is a double negative meaning "many; much" and is commonly used in written language. Note that 少なくない cannot modify nouns.
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英訳 | many; much; plenty of; not a few |
文型 | N{は/が/も}少なくない:外国人は少なくない; 本屋が少なくない |
例文 |
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練習 |
2. Nounを通して
本文 |
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説明 | を通して indicates a medium (x) through which someone does something or something happens. X can be things, people, activities, or actions. |
英訳 | through; via |
文型 | Nを通して |
例文 |
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練習 |
3. Noun1からNoun2にかけて
本文 |
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説明 | XからYにかけて indicates a span of time or space and is used primarily in written language. |
英訳 | from X to Y |
文型 | N1からN2にかけて:東京から大阪にかけて; 1900年から1950年にかけて |
例文 |
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4. Nounで言うと
本文 |
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説明 | で言うと is used to restate something according to a different system or framework (e.g., a calendar, a measurement system, a language, a country's history). |
英訳 | in terms of; in; according to; from the viewpoint of |
文型 | Nで言うと:日本の習慣で言うと; キログラムで言うと; メートルで言うと |
例文 |
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5. 各+Noun
本文 |
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説明 | A prefix which adds the meaning "each; various." When the referent of the noun after 各 is not known, it means "various." |
英訳 | each ~; various |
文型 | 各N |
例文 |
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練習 |
6. XばかりでなくY(も)
本文 |
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説明 | This structure is similar to XだけでなくY(も) and means "not only X but also Y." It is usually used in written language. |
英訳 | not only X but also Y |
文型 |
a. Sばかりでなく:Type 2c b. N1(Prt)+ばかりでなくN2(Prt)+(も) |
例文 |
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7. Noun+風
本文 |
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説明 | 風 is a suffix and is added to nouns to make no-adjectives. X風 means "X style/type" or "look like X." |
英訳 | ~ style; ~ type; look like |
文型 |
a. N風だ:このドレスは着物風だ。 b. N1風のN2:カウボーイ風の帽子 |
例文 |
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8. Nounと共に
本文 |
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説明 | Nと共に indicates that someone does something or that something happens with N. |
英訳 | with; along with; as |
文型 | Nと共に |
例文 |
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9. ~ずつ
本文 |
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説明 | The number/amount X+ずつ indicates that someone does something (or something happens) with X as the unit (e.g., the teacher teaches ten new kanji a week; the woman gave three chocolates to each child; the students came for their interviews two at a time). |
英訳 | per/a; at a time; each; (little) by (little) |
文型 |
a. {Number(+Counter)}ずつ:二つずつ b. Non-specific amount expression+ずつ:ちょっとずつ; いくらかずつ |
例文 |
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練習 |
10. Noun1からNoun2に至るまで
本文 |
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説明 | This construction indicates a span of time or space and emphasizes the size of that span at the same time. It can also be used for other than spatial or temporal spans, as shown in Ex. 3. It is used in written language. |
英訳 | from X all the way through Y; from X even to Y |
文型 | N1からN2に至るまで:北海道から沖縄に至るまで; 2月から3月に至るまで |
例文 |
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11. Noun+同士
本文 |
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説明 | X同士 indicates that Xs do something together, that Xs do something to/for/against each other, or that someone puts Xs together in some way. |
英訳 | each other; between; among; together; with |
文型 |
a. N同士{が/で/を}:友達同士{が/で}集まる; ユーザー同士を結びつける(to unite) b. N1同士のN2:日本のメーカー同士の競争 |
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12. Verbべき
本文 |
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説明 | The auxiliary べき expresses the speaker's strong judgment that one should do something. The form of する before べき can be either す or する (i.e., すべき or するべき). |
英訳 | should; ought to |
文型 |
a. V-plain.non-past.affべき{だ/じゃない/ではない/だった/じゃなかった/ではなかった}:行くべき{だ/じゃない/だった/じゃなかった} (Exception: する+べき すべき) b. VべきN:取るべき授業; 今日中にす(る)べきこと |
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13. Nounからすると
本文 |
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説明 | からすると introduces the source or basis for the speaker's conjecture or judgment. The information can be of any sort, including visual information (e.g., a shape, a color, a mannerism) and verbal information (e.g., an explanation, a conversation, a report). |
英訳 | judging from ~ |
文型 | Nからすると:顔色(complexion)からすると; 話し方からすると |
例文 |
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14. Verbぬ
本文 |
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説明 | ぬ is a verb negative ending in classical Japanese and is equivalent to ない in meaning and form. For example, 言わぬ is equivalent to 言わない. In modern Japanese, it often appears in set phrases. |
英訳 | not |
文型 |
V-naiぬ a. ru-verbs:食べぬ; 起きぬ b. u-verbs:飲まぬ; 会わぬ c. irr.verbs:来る 来ぬ; する せぬ |
例文 |
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15. Nounの上で; Noun上(で)
本文 |
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説明 | Nの上で and N上 indicate that the speaker's statement refers only to N. The phrase is commonly used in written language. |
英訳 | in terms of; from the viewpoint of ~; as far as ~ is concerned; according to ~ |
文型 |
a. Nの上で:記録(record)の上で; 書類(document)の上で b. N1の上でN2:記録の上での問題 c. N上:記録上; 書類上 d. N1上のN2:記録上の問題 |
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16. Nounと並んで
本文 |
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説明 | と並んで is used when introducing one or more examples to be compared to the subject of the sentence. It is used primarily in written language. |
英訳 | as well as; just like |
文型 | Nと並んで |
例文 |
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17. おそらく~(だろう)
本文 |
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説明 | おそらく means "probably" and usually occurs with the conjecture auxiliaries だろう or でしょう. |
英訳 | probably |
文型 | おそらく~だろう:Type 3 |
例文 |
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練習 |
18. まったく
本文 |
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説明 | まったく is used for emphasis in affirmative sentences. It is often used to express the speaker's emotion. In negative sentences まったく indicates complete negation. It is used with verbs (often potential verbs) and i-adjectives in negative sentences. まったく~(という)わけではない indicates partial negation. |
英訳 |
まったく(in affirmative sentences) = totally; utterly; entirely; completely; extremely; absolutely; really まったく~ない = not ~ at all; not ~ in the least まったく~(という)わけではない = It's not that ~ totally/completely/extremely/etc. ~ |
文型 |
a. まったく{V/A/ANa/ANo/(の)N}:まったく{腹が立つ(to be angry)/感心する(to be impressed)/驚いた/あきらめた}; まったく{すごい/えらい/すばらしい}; まったく{だめだ/不思議だ}; まったく(の)うそだ; まったく(の)間違いだ; まったく(の)誤解(miunderstanding)だ b. まったく~ない:まったく{出来ない/分からない/読めない}; まったく面白くない c. まったく~(という)わけではない:まったくあきらめた(という)わけではない; まったく安い(という)わけではない; まったくだめ{な/だという}わけではない; まったく(の)うそ(だ)(という)わけではない |
例文 |
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練習 |
第12課:日本の伝統工芸 (Tobira: p.282-286)
1. いったいQuestion word
本文 |
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説明 | いったい is an intensifier used with questions. It usually occurs immediately preceding the question word, but it may appear in other locations before the question word, as seen in Ex. 2. |
英訳 | (what, who, where, how, etc.) on earth |
文型 | いったいQW |
例文 |
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2. Sentenceとされている
本文 |
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説明 | とされている is used to introduce a commonly-accepted idea or belief. |
英訳 | it is thought/believed/considered that ~; ~ is considered/believed to ~ |
文型 | S-plainとされている |
例文 |
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3. 第一(の/に)
本文 |
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説明 | 第一 modifies either verbs with に or nouns with or without の, and means "first." It is also used as a predicate with だ or です. |
英訳 | first; first of all; to begin with; the first; the primary |
文型 |
a. 第一にV:第一に考えられることは; 第一に挙げられる例は b. 第一のN:第一の問題; 第一の原因; 第一の注意すべき点 c. 第一N:第一条件(term); 第一印象(impression) d. Nが第一だ:安全が第一だ; 練習が第一だ |
例文 |
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練習 |
4. Nounに{関する/関して}
本文 |
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説明 | に関する literally means "related to," but it is also used to mean "with regard to; concerning." に関する modifies nouns and に関して modifies verbs. について is similar in meaning to に関して, but is less formal and is used in both written and spoken language. |
英訳 | with regard to; regarding; concerning; about; on; related to |
文型 |
a. N1に関するN2:日本の教育に関する問題 b. Nに関してV:家康の政治(politics)に関してディスカッションをする c. Nに関してはS:読み方に関しては色々あると言われている |
例文 |
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練習 |
5. 考えられない
本文 |
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説明 | 考えられない (lit. cannot think) is preceded by either nouns or sentences. |
英訳 | unimaginable; unthinkable; inconceivable |
文型 |
a. N{は/なんて}考えられない b. S-plain{ということは/なんて}考えられない |
例文 |
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練習 |
6. 生かす
本文 |
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説明 | 生かす literally means "to keep alive," but it is also used to mean "to make the most of one's ability, skills, experience, etc.," "to utilize to the fullest a special property of something," or "to take advantage of an opportunity." |
英訳 | make the most of; make the best use of; use effectively; maintain |
例文 |
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練習 |
7. Sentenceことから
本文 |
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説明 | Sことから is used to express a reason. |
英訳 | because; from the fact that ~ |
文型 | Type 2c |
例文 |
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8. Nounなし
本文 |
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説明 | Xなし means "without X" and is used with で to modify verbs, with の to modify nouns, and with だ to form a predicate. |
英訳 | without ~; with no ~ |
文型 | Nなし{で/の/だ} |
例文 |
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練習 |
9. こそ
本文 |
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説明 | こそ emphasizes the preceding word, phrase or clause. When こそ is used, the particles は, が and を are usually dropped. |
英訳 | the very ~; It is that ~; in particular; precisely; definitely; for sure; only (when, by doing ~, etc.) |
文型 |
a. Nこそ:今度こそ; これこそ b. V-teこそ:(日本語で)話してこそ |
例文 |
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練習 |
10. Verb-masu込む
本文 |
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説明 |
The compound verb base 込む can mean the following: a. Taking or putting something/someone into something (Exs. 飲み込む; 取り込む; つめ込む; 押し込む) b. Getting into something (Exs. 入り込む; 乗り込む; 飛び込む; あがり込む) c. Being heavily involved in something (Exs. 考え込む; 話し込む; 寝込む) d. Doing something thoroughly or completely (Exs. 教え込む; 思い込む; 信じ込む) |
英訳 | in; into; deeply; heavily; thoroughly; completely |
文型 | Verb-masu込む |
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11. ~さ(あ)
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説明 | さ occurs after phrases, clauses or sentences in very casual conversation. One function is to catch the hearer's attention, but it is also used as a filler with no meaning. |
英訳 | (you know) |
文型 | phrase/clause/sentenceさ |
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12. Nounでもある
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説明 | XはYでもある is used to introduce the second property of X when X has more than one property. Note that XもYだ is used when someone/something else is also Y. Compare the following sentences:
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英訳 | be also |
文型 | N/ANaでもある |
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13. ずっと
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説明 | ずっと means that a state or action is ongoing, from one point in time to another point in time (often the moment of speech). |
英訳 | all the time; all along; all the way; all through ~; throughout ~; ever (since); never (since) |
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14. Number1, Number2 + Counter
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説明 | Two successive numbers are used to indicate an approximate number or amount. |
英訳 | (two or three) days/times/etc.; (three, four) hours/cars/etc. |
文型 |
Number1, Number2 + Counter【Number2 is the subsequent number.】: 2、3回; 3、4時間; 3、4日; 5、6枚; 5、6本 |
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15. ~まま
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説明 | まま indicates that the state of X remains unchanged or that someone does something without changing the current state of X. |
英訳 |
Xままだ = remain the same as ~ Xまま(で)V = V with ~; V while ~; V as (it is); V without ~ Xままにする = leave ~ as (it is) |
文型 |
a. Nのまま:Tシャツのまま; 子供のまま b. DemAまま:このまま; そのまま; あのまま c. Aまま:冷たいまま d. ANaなまま:きれいなまま e. V-plain.pastまま:置いたまま; 作ったまま |
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第13課:日本人と自然 (Tobira: p.307-311)
1. ~代
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説明 | The suffix 代 is used with ten or its multiples to describe someone's approximate age, or with ten or its multiples and 年 to refer to a certain decade. |
英訳 |
10/20/30/etc. + 代 = one's teens/twenties/thirties/etc. 1900/1910/1920/etc. + 年代 = 1900s/1910s/1920s/etc. |
文型 |
a. 10/20/30/etc. + 代 b. 1900/1910/1920/etc. + 年代 |
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2. ~(の)姿
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説明 | 姿 means "appearance; figure." It is used to describe someone's external appearance, i.e., someone's form or physical appearance; someone's appearance in certain clothing; or the way someone appears when he/she is doing something. |
英訳 |
N姿 = in ~; wearing ~ Nの姿 = one's appearance; in ~; wearing ~ V-plain.non-past姿 = the way one V |
文型 |
a. N(の)姿:着物姿; 女性の姿 b. V-plain.non-past姿:歩く姿; 話している姿 |
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3. Verbては、Verb
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説明 | The construction V-teはV is used when a set of actions is repeated over a period of time. V-teはV can be repeated, as seen in Ex. 3. |
英訳 | V1 and V2 repeatedly/over and over again/many times/etc. |
文型 | V1-teは、V2 |
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4. Verbたものだ
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説明 | V-plain.pastものだ is used to describe in a nostalgic fashion what someone did or what happened in the past. |
英訳 | used to ~; would |
文型 | V-plain.pastものだ |
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5. だんだん
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説明 | だんだん is used to indicate that a state changes gradually. Thus, it often occurs with ~ていく, てくる and ~くなる, ~になる, ~ようになる. |
英訳 | gradually; little by little; bit by bit |
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6. ~につれて
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説明 | Xにつれて indicates that something takes place as X occurs. X can be either a verb or the stem of a suru-verb (i.e., VN). |
英訳 | as ~; with ~ |
文型 |
a. V-non-past.affにつれて:文法が分かるにつれて b. Nにつれて:経済の発展につれて |
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7. Verb-masu上げる
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説明 | Affixed to the masu-stems of verbs, 上げる forms compound verbs, adding meanings such as "finish something up," "upward," or "to a great extent." The meaning is determined by the preceding verb. |
英訳 | up; finish up V-ing |
文型 | V-masu上げる:書き上げる; し上げる; 縛り上げる(to tie up); 磨き上げる(to polish); 読み上げる(to read aloud); 持ち上げる; 立ち上げる(to start/boot up) |
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8. Verb-masuがけに
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説明 | がけに with the masu-stems of motion verbs like 行く, 来る, and 帰る means "on one's way." |
英訳 | on one's way |
文型 | V-masuがけに(V=motion verbs):行きがけに; 来がけに; 帰りがけに |
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9. ~だけで
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説明 | N/Vだけで is used to express the idea that just X or just doing X is fine or good enough or that one can do something just with X or by doing X. |
英訳 | just with ~; just by V-ing (is fine/enough/etc.); just N (is fine/enough/etc.) |
文型 |
a. Nだけで:日本語だけで; 漢字の勉強だけで b. V1-plainだけでV2:(インターネットで)注文{する/した}だけで c. {V-plain.non-past/N}だけで{いい/十分(enough)だ/etc.}:ビデオを見るだけでいい; 英和辞典だけで十分だ |
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10. あまりに(も)
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説明 | あまりに(も) indicates that the degree of something is excessively high. It is commonly used in formal language. |
英訳 | too; excessively; so |
文型 |
a. あまりに(も){A/ANaだ}:あまりに(も)古い; あまりに(も)不自然だ b. あまりに(も){Adv/ANaに/A-stemく}:あまりに(も)ゆっくり; あまりに(も)簡単に; あまりに(も)速く |
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11. ~には
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説明 | には indicates purpose in general statements (often stating the speaker's judgement about an action in terms of its effectiveness, convenience, necessity, etc.). には can also mean "when" (= ~時には). Verbs or nouns can precede には. Note that when ために is used, the predicate in the main clause describes an action. Compare the following examples:
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英訳 | to; in order to; for; for the purpose of; when |
文型 |
a. V-plain.non-past.affには:見るには; 話すには b. Nには(N:the stems of suru-verbs (i.e., VN) or the direct object of する):旅行には; 仕事には |
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12. だいたい
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説明 | だいたい means "most; almost; nearly (all); approximate." The meaning changes depending on what だいたい modifies, as seen in 英訳. |
英訳 |
だいたいV = mostly V; nearly V; almost V だいたいのN = most N; almost all N; approximate N; rough N だいたいNumber/Amount = approximately Number/Amount |
文型 |
a. だいたいV b. だいたいのN c. だいたいNumber/Amount |
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13. Nounに{おける/おいて}
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説明 | The compound particle における indicates the place or time of an action, event or state. The pre-verbal form is において. Both are used only in formal language. |
英訳 | in; at; on; during |
文型 |
a. N1におけるN2:日本における生活 b. NにおいてV:日本において生活する |
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14. ~もまた
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説明 | In this usage もまた means the same as も; however, it is more emphatic and formal than も. また has several meanings, but in this use また is synonymous with も. |
英訳 | as well; also; too |
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15. なんだ
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説明 | The literal meaning of なんだ is "What is X?" However, it can also be used as an interjection to express the speaker's slight surprise. |
英訳 | Oh! |
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16. ほら
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説明 | The interjection ほら is used to draw the hearer's attention to something. |
英訳 | Look!; See?; Come on! |
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第14課:日本の政治 (Tobira: p.330-334)
1. ~を除いて
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説明 | 除く means "to remove; get rid of." を除いて is used as a compound particle meaning "except." |
英訳 | except (for) ~; with the exception of ~; but ~ |
文型 | a. Nを除いて b. N1を除くN2 |
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2. すなわち
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説明 | すなわち is used to rephrase something that has just been mentioned. |
英訳 | that is; i.e.; namely |
文型 | NP1/S1、すなわちNP2/S2:日本で一番大きい町、すなわち東京 |
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3. 一応
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説明 | 一応 is used when an action/state is tentative or not quite complete, perfect or satisfactory. It is also used when an action is taken as a precaution. |
英訳 | for the time being; for now; tentatively; although not perfectly; sort of; just in case |
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4. 左右する
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説明 | 左右する means "to influence" or "to govern." It is commonly used in written language. |
英訳 | influence; govern |
文型 | N1はN2を左右する |
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5. Noun1、Noun2共(に)
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説明 | N1、N2共(に) means "both N1 and N2." The colloquial form is N1もN2も. |
英訳 | Both X and Y |
文型 | N1、N2共に:九州、四国共に; 男女とも(に) |
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6. (期間の表現)に入る
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説明 | Nに入る literally means "enter N," but when N is a noun indicating a time period, the phrase means "N begins." The most common form is Nに入り or Nに入って(から), meaning "since/after N began." |
英訳 |
N(time period)に入る = N sets in; N begins N(time period)に{入り/入って(から)} = since N began; after N began |
文型 | N(time period)に{入る/入り/入って(から)} |
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7. ~を問題にする; ~が問題にされる; ~が問題になる
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説明 | Xを問題にする means "to bring X up as an issue" or "to question X." This phrase is often used in the passive form Xが問題にされる. Xが問題になる is also common. The meaning is the same as that of the passive version. |
英訳 |
Xを問題にする = to bring X up as an issue; to address the issue/question of X; to question X; to call X into question Xが問題に{される/なる} = X becomes an issue; X is brought up as an issue; X is questioned; X is called into question |
文型 |
a. N/NPを問題にする b. N/NPが問題に{される/なる} |
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8. 未だに
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説明 | 未だに indicates that someone or something is in the same state as he/she/it was some time ago. 未だ(に) is used primarily in written language. In spoken language まだ is used. |
英訳 | still; (not ~) yet |
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9. いかに~か
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説明 | This structure occurs as an embedded interrogative sentence, where いかに means "how (much)" or "in what way." いかに is commonly used in written language. |
英訳 | how; how much; in what way |
文型 | Type 3 |
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10. しかしながら
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説明 | しかしながら is a disjunctive conjunction and appears only in sentence-initial position. It is a highly formal expression and is usually used in written language. |
英訳 | however; but |
文型 | S1。しかしながら、S2。 |
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11. かなり
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説明 | かなり indicates that the degree of something is not extremely high but is higher than average. |
英訳 | considerably; rather; quite; fairly; pretty; quite a lot |
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12. Verb{れる/られる}
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説明 | Passive forms of verbs are used to indicate politeness when the speaker refers to the actions of the hearer or someone to whom the speaker wants to show deference. However, this use of passive forms does not indicate as high a level of politeness as おV-masuになる or special honorific verbs like いらっしゃる and 召し上がる. Note that the polite form of the auxiliary verb いる is not いられる, but おられる (see 文型 d). The auxiliary verb おられる is less polite that いらっしゃる. |
文型 |
a. う-verbs:V-nai + れる:書かれる; 話される; 使われる; 飲まれる b. る-verbs:V-masu + られる:起きられる; 寝られる c. Irr.verbs:される; 来られる d. V-teいる:V-teおられる:住んでおられる; 持っておられる; 知っておられる |
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13. Noun次第
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説明 | When 次第 is affixed to nouns, it means "depend on." |
英訳 | N次第だ = depend on ~ N次第で = depending on ~ |
文型 | N次第{だ/で}:成績次第{だ/で}; 大学次第{だ/で} |
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14. ~とは限らない
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説明 | Xとは限らない means "it's not necessarily the case that X." だ before とは is optional as shown in 文型. |
英訳 | not necessarily ~; not always; it's not necessarily the case that ~ |
文型 | Type 1/Type 3 (Both forms are acceptable.) |
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15. ちゃんと; きちんと
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説明 | ちゃんと and きちんと both indicate that someone does something neatly, properly, regularly or without fail (i.e., in the way it is supposed to be done). ちゃんと is more colloquial than きちんと. |
英訳 | neatly; tidily; properly; adequately; in good order; regularly; without fail |
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第15課:世界と私の国の未来 (Tobira: p.355-359)
1. 少なくとも~は
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説明 | 少なくとも means "at least." It can be used with a noun or a number (optionally followed by a counter). When 少なくとも is used with a noun, は often follows the noun (or the particle after the noun), indicating that the noun is under focus. When は follows a number (+ a counter), it emphasizes the number. |
英訳 | at (the) least; to say the least |
文型 |
a. 少なくともNumber(+Counter):少なくとも20ぐらいの国; 少なくとも3時間は b. 少なくともN:少なくとも家族(は) |
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2. ~もVerbば、~もVerb
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説明 | This structure is used to present actions or states (usually two) as examples of possible or past actions/states. In many cases the actions/states are contrastive ones. |
英訳 | some do ~ and others do ~; do ~ and ~ among other things; sometimes ~ and sometimes ~; there are times when ~ and times when ~; ~ and also ~; ~ and ~ as well |
文型 |
a. N1もV-condば、N2もV (See L.6 文法ノート③) b. A-stemくもV-condば、~も:面白くもなれば、つまらなくもなる c. ANa{に/で}もV-condば、~も:上手にもなれば、下手にもなる; 安全でもあれば、便利でもある d. V1-masuもすれば、V2-masuもする:読みもすれば、書きもする |
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3. ~のうち(で)
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説明 | Xのうち(で) is used to indicate the total entity (X) when presenting a part or portion of X. |
英訳 | in; of; among |
文型 | Nのうち(で) |
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4. 後(の)Noun
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説明 | 後の, when followed by a number (+ counter) or a noun, means "the remaining" or "the rest of." Here, の after 後 is optional. This use of 後 should be distinguised from 後 in the following example, where 後 means "~more." In this use, の cannot occur after 後.
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英訳 | the remaining ~; the remainder of ~; the rest of ~ |
文型 |
a. 後(の)Number(+Counter):後(の)一人; 後(の)3台 b. 後のN:後の人たち; 後の車 |
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5. 何より(も)
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説明 | 何より(も) means "before everything" or "than anything else," depending on the context. |
英訳 | before everything; above all; first of all; more than anything else; the most ~ |
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6. ~に従って
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説明 | に従って literally means "following." In some contexts, it means "in accordance with." |
英訳 | in accordance with ~; complying with ~; following ~ |
文型 | Nに従って:スケジュールに従って; 規則に従って |
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7. たった(の)Number(+Counter)
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説明 | たった(の) is used to emphasize the small amount or number of something. |
英訳 | only |
文型 | たった(の)Number(+Counter):たった(の)三人; たった(の)15 |
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8. ~て{しかたがない/しようがない/しょうがない}
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説明 | てしかたがない, てしようがない, etc. literally mean that a situation is such or is occurring and there is no way to escape it. The phrases are used to indicate that the speaker is unable to control his psychological/physiological reactions or bear a sensation or an external situation. しかたがない and しようがない are interchangeable. しょうがない is colloquial. This use is different from the following example, where しかたがない means "it cannot be helped; there's nothing one can do."
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英訳 | cannot help V-ing; cannot stop feeling ~; so ~; unbearably ~ |
文型 |
a. {V/A}-teしかたがない, etc.:咳が出てしかたがない; 喉が渇いてしかたがない; 寒くてしようがない; 欲しくてしょうがない b. ANaでしかたがない, etc.:心配でしかたがない; 退屈(boring)でしかたがない |
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9. ~以来
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説明 | 以来 means "since." It is used with V-te or VN referring to an action in the past, or with N indicating a specific time in the past. |
英訳 | since |
文型 |
a. V-te以来:21世紀に入って以来 b. VN/N以来:終戦以来; 結婚以来; 入学以来; 留学以来 c. それ/あれ以来 |
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10. 何から何まで
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説明 | 何から何まで means "all." It is more emphatic than 全部, すべて or みんな. 何から何まで can be used with 全部, すべて or みんな. |
英訳 | anything and everything; all; all kinds |
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11. かえって
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説明 | かえって is used when an opposite result comes about, contrary to one's expectation. |
英訳 | on the contrary; rather |
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12. ~と同時に
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説明 | と同時に means that something takes place at the same time as other actions or events, or that something is the case while something else is also the case. |
英訳 | as soon as; the moment; at the same time; also; as well |
文型 |
a. {V/A}-plain.non-pastと同時に:{考える/考えない/考えている}と同時に; 難しいと同時に b. {ANa/N}{である/じゃない/ではない}と同時に:大切{である/じゃない/ではない}と同時に; 問題{である/じゃない/ではない}と同時に c. VN/Nと同時に:終戦と同時に; 叫び声と同時に |
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13. Sentenceっけ
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説明 | っけ is a question marker. It is used only in very casual conversation. Note that after the non-past forms of verbs, adjectives and ~ない, んだ must be used before っけ, as seen in 文型. |
文型 |
a. {V/A}-plain.non-pastんだっけ:行くんだっけ; 大きいんだっけ b. {V/A}-plain.past(んだ)っけ:行った(んだ)っけ; 大きかった(んだ)っけ c. {ANa/N/QW}(なん)だっけ:上手(なん)だっけ; 学生(なん)だっけ; いつ(なん)だっけ d. {ANa/N}じゃないんだっけ:上手じゃないんだっけ; 学生じゃないんだっけ e. {ANa/N/QW}だった(んだ)っけ:上手だった(んだ)っけ; 学生だった(んだ)っけ; いつだった(んだ)っけ f. {ANa/N}じゃなかった(んだ)っけ:上手じゃなかった(んだ)っけ; 学生じゃなかった(んだ)っけ |
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14. Verb-masuっぱなし
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説明 | Vっぱなし is used when someone or something keeps doing X or someone did X but didn't finish the action properly. In the first case, Vっぱなし is often used to describe an undesirable situation, but this is not always the case, as seen in Ex. 2. This phrase is not used in formal language. |
英訳 | keep ~ ing; leave |
文型 |
a. Verb-masuっぱなし:しゃべりっぱなし; 食べっぱなし b. Verb-masuっぱなしにする c. Verb-masuっぱなしだ/で d. Verb-masuっぱなしのN |
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